History Germany–United Kingdom relations

1 history

1.1 shared heritage
1.2 trade , hanseatic league
1.3 royal family

1.3.1 wilhelm ii


1.4 intellectual influences
1.5 imperial germany

1.5.1 rapid german economic growth
1.5.2 diplomacy
1.5.3 colonies
1.5.4 improvement , worsening of relations
1.5.5 naval race
1.5.6 2 moroccan crises
1.5.7 start of world war i
1.5.8 allied victory


1.6 interwar
1.7 world war ii
1.8 since 1945

1.8.1 occupation
1.8.2 cold war
1.8.3 reunification

history

shared heritage

english , german both west germanic languages. modern english has diverged after absorbing more french influence after 1066. english has roots in languages spoken germanic peoples mainland europe, more various peoples came netherlands, germany , denmark, including people called angles after whom english named. many everyday words in english of germanic origin , similar german counterparts, , more intellectual , formal words of french, latin or greek origin, german tends form calques of many of these. english has become dominant world language , studied in germany. german, in 19th , 20th centuries, important language of science , technology, has largely lost role. in english schools, german niche language , less important french. german no longer studied in britain except @ a-level in secondary schools.

trade , hanseatic league

there long history of trade relations between germans , british. hanseatic league commercial , defensive confederation of merchant guilds, , market towns dominated trade along coast of northern europe. stretched baltic north sea in 13th 17th centuries, , included london. main centre lübeck. league facilitated trade between london , numerous cities, of them controlled german merchants. opened trade baltic.

royal family

until late 17th century, marriages between english , german royal families uncommon. empress matilda, daughter of henry of england, married between 1114 , 1125 henry v, holy roman emperor, had no issue. in 1256, richard, 1st earl of cornwall, elected king of germany, , sons surnamed almain. throughout period, steelyard of london typical german business settlement. german mercenaries hired in wars of roses.

anne of cleves consort of henry viii, not until william iii of england king of german origin came reign, house of nassau. consort of successor, queen anne prince george of denmark, house of oldenburg, had no surviving children.

in 1714, george i, german-speaking hanoverian prince of mixed british , german descent, ascended british throne, founding house of hanover. on century, britain s monarchs rulers of hanover (first prince electors of holy roman empire , kings of hanover). there personal union, , both countries remained quite separate, king lived in london. british leaders complained kings george , george ii, spoke barely english, heavily involved in hanover , distorted british foreign policy benefit of hanover, small, poor, rural , unimportant country in western europe. in contrast, king george iii never visited hanover in 60 years (1760-1820) ruled it. hanover occupied france during napoleonic wars, hanoverian troops fled england form king s german legion, unit in british army of ethnic germans. personal link hanover ended in 1837, accession of queen victoria british throne. semi-salic law prevented being on throne of hanover since male relative available.

every british monarch george george v in 20th century took german consort. queen victoria raised under close supervision german-born mother, princess victoria of saxe-coburg-saalfeld , married first cousin prince albert of saxe-coburg , gotha in 1840. daughter, princess victoria, married prince friedrich wilhelm of prussia in 1858,who became crown prince 3 years later. both liberals, admired britain , detested german chancellor otto von bismarck, bismarck had ear of elderly german emperor wilhelm i, died in 1888. friedrich wilhelm became emperor fredrich iii until died 99 days later, , princess victoria became empress of germany. son became emperor wilhelm ii , forced bismarck retire 2 years later.

wilhelm ii

wilhelm, grandson of queen victoria, had love-hate relationship britain. visited , known in higher circles, recklessly promoted great expansion of imperial german navy, potential threat british government not overlook. humiliating crisis came in daily telegraph affair of 1908. while on extended visit britain, kaiser gave long interview daily telegraph full of bombast, exaggeration , vehement protestations of love britain. ridiculed british populace mad, mad march hares questioning peaceful intentions of germany , sincere desire peace england, admitted german populace not friendly toward england. interview caused sensation around europe, demonstrating kaiser utterly incompetent in diplomatic affairs. british had decided wilhelm @ least mentally disturbed , saw interview further evidence of unstable personality, rather indication of official german hostility. affair more serious in germany, unanimously ridiculed. thereafter played more executive , legislative decree role in major state affairs.

the british royal family retained german surname von sachsen-coburg-gotha until 1917, when, in response anti-german feelings during world war i, legally changed more british name house of windsor. in same year, members of british royal family gave german titles, , german relatives fighting against british in war stripped of british titles titles deprivation act 1917.

intellectual influences

ideas flowed , forth between 2 nations. refugees germany s repressive regimes settled in britain, notably karl marx , friedrich engels. advances in technology shared, in chemistry. on 100,000 german immigrants came britain. germany perhaps 1 of world s main centres innovative social ideas in late 19th , 20th centuries. british liberal welfare reforms, around 1910, led liberals h. h. asquith , david lloyd george, adopted bismarck s system of social welfare. ideas on town planning exchanged.

imperial germany
rapid german economic growth

germany, unified in 1871 after had defeated denmark, austria , france, became economic, military , diplomatic powerhouse under bismarck. rapid growth took place in heavy industry, coal, steel, chemicals , railways. domestic economy rivalled britain 1890, international trade , finance smaller. germany s overseas empire later , far behind britain s.

diplomacy

the british foreign office had been poorly served series of ambassadors, provided superficial reports on dramatic developments of 1860s. changed appointment of odo russell (1871-1884), developed close rapport bismarck , provided in depth coverage of german developments.

britain gave passive support unification under prussian domination strategic, ideological , business reasons. german empire considered useful counterbalance on continent both france , russia, 2 powers worried britain most. threat france in mediterranean , russia in central asia neutralised judicious relationship germany. new nation stabilising force, , bismarck promoted role in stabilising europe , in preventing major war on continent. british prime minister gladstone, however, suspicious of germany, disliked authoritarianism , feared start war weaker neighbour. ideological gulf stressed lord arthur russell in 1872:

prussia represents antagonistic liberal , democratic ideas of age; military despotism, rule of sword, contempt sentimental talk, indifference human suffering, imprisonment of independent opinion, transfer force of unwilling populations hateful yoke, disregard of european opinion, total want of greatness , generosity, etc., etc.

britain looking inward , avoided picking disputes germany made clear, in war in sight crisis of 1875, not tolerate pre-emptive war germany on france.

colonies

bismarck built complex network of european alliances kept peace in 1870s , 1880s. british building empire, bismarck opposed colonies expensive. when public demand made him, in 1880s, grab colonies in africa , pacific, ensured conflicts britain minimal.

improvement , worsening of relations

relations between britain , germany improved key policymakers, prime minister lord salisbury , chancellor bismarck, both realistic conservatives , largely both agreed on policies. there several proposals formal treaty relationship between germany , britain, went nowhere, britain preferred stand in called splendid isolation. nevertheless, series of developments steadily improved relations down 1890, when bismarck pushed out aggressive wilhelm ii. in january 1896 escalated tensions kruger telegram, congratulating boer president kruger of transvaal beating off jameson raid. german officials in berlin had managed stop kaiser proposing german protectorate on transvaal. in second boer war, germany sympathised boers. in 1897 admiral tirpitz became german naval secretary of state , began transformation of german navy small, coastal defence force fleet meant challenge british naval power. tirpitz calls riskflotte (risk fleet) make risky britain take on germany, part of wider bid alter international balance of power decisively in germany s favour. @ same time, german foreign minister bernhard von bülow called weltpolitik (world politics). new policy assert claim global power. bismarck s conservativism abandoned, germany intent on challenging , upsetting international order.

thereafter relations deteriorated steadily. britain began see germany hostile force , moved friendlier relationships france.

coming power in 1888, young wilhelm dismissed bismarck in 1890 , sought aggressively increase germany s influence in world. foreign policy controlled erratic kaiser, played increasingly-reckless hand , leadership of friedrich von holstein, powerful foreign minister.

he argued long-term coalition between france , russia had fall apart, russia , britain never , britain seek alliance germany. russia couldd not germany renew mutual treaties , formed closer relationship france in 1894 franco-russian alliance since both worried german aggression. britain refused agree formal alliance germany sought.

since germany s analysis mistaken on every point, nation increasingly dependent on triple alliance austria-hungary , italy. undermined ethic diversity of austria-hungary , differences italy. latter, in 1915, switch sides.

naval race

the british royal navy dominated globe in 19th century, after 1890, germany attempted achieve parity. resulting naval race heightened tensions between 2 nations.

the german navy, under tirpitz, had ambitions rival great british navy , dramatically expanded fleet in 20th century protect colonies , exert power worldwide. tirpitz started programme of warship construction in 1898. in 1890, germany traded strategic island of heligoland in north sea britain in exchange eastern african island of zanzibar, proceeded construct great naval base. british, however, ahead in naval race , introduced highly-advanced dreadnought battleship in 1907.

two moroccan crises

in first moroccan crisis of 1905, there war between germany against britain , france on french attempt establish protectorate on morocco. germans upset @ not being informed. wilhelm made highly-provocative speech moroccan independence. following year, conference held in of european powers except austria-hungary (now little more german satellite) sided france. compromise brokered united states french relinquish of control on morocco.

in 1911, france strongarmed seizing more control on morocco. german foreign minister alfred von kiderlen-waechter not opposed if germany had compensation elsewhere in africa, in french congo. sent small warship, made saber-rattling threats , whipped anger german nationalists. france , germany agreed on compromise, france gaining control of morocco , germany gaining of french congo. british cabinet, however, angry , alarmed @ germany s aggressiveness. lloyd george made dramatic mansion house speech denounced german move intolerable humiliation. there talk of war until germany backed down, , relations remained sour.

start of world war i

the liberal party sympathetic germany or @ least wanted britain have relations. conservative party hostile germany threat unless british empire aggressively protected. emerging labour party , other socialists denounced war, capitalist device maximize profits.

in 1907, leading german expert in foreign office, eyre crowe, wrote memorandum senior officials warned vigorously against german intentions. crowe argued berlin wanted hegemony... in europe, , in world . crowe argued germany presented threat balance of power of napoleon. germany expand poet unless 1904 entente cordiale, france, upgraded full military alliance. crowe taken seriously, because born in germany.

in germany, left-wing parties, social democratic party of germany, in 1912 german election, won seats first time. german historian fritz fischer famously argued junkers, dominated germany, wanted external war distract population , whip patriotic support government.

other scholars, niall ferguson, think german conservatives ambivalent war , worried losing war have disastrous consequences , successful war might alienate population if long or difficult.

in explaining why neutral britain went war germany, paul kennedy, in rise of anglo-german antagonism, 1860-1914 (1980), argued germany had become economically more powerful britain. kennedy downplayed disputes on economic trade , imperialism. there had long been disputes on baghdad railway germany proposed build through ottoman empire. amicable compromise on railway reached in 1914 played no role in starting in summer crisis. germany relied time , again on sheer military power, britain began appeal moral sensibilities. germany saw invasion of belgium necessary military tactic, , britain saw profound moral crime, major cause of british entry war. kennedy argues far main reason war london s fear repeat of 1870, when prussia led other german states smash france, mean germany, powerful army , navy, control english channel , northwestern france. british policymakers thought catastrophe british security.

in 1839, britain, prussia , netherlands agreed treaty of london guaranteed neutrality of belgium. germany violated treaty in 1914, chancellor calling treaty scrap of paper . ensured britain declared war.

allied victory

the great german offensive on western front in spring 1918 succeeded, british , french pulled back, opening battlefield frustrate last-ditch german plan. summer 1918, american soldiers arriving on front @ 10,000 day, germany unable replace casualties , army shrank every day. series of huge battles in september , october produced sweeping allied victories, , german high command, under field marshal paul von hindenburg, saw had lost , told wilhelm go exile.

in november, new republic negotiated armistice, disguised surrender, because fourteen points of president woodrow wilson more lenient terms wanted allies. allied forces occupied , disarmed germany, stripped of war gains , colonies , destroyed navy. keeping food blockade in place, allies determined starve germany until agreed peace terms.

in 1918 election, days later, british prime minister lloyd george promised impose harsh treaty on germany. @ paris peace conference in 1919, however, lloyd george more moderate france , italy, still agreed force germany admit starting war , pay entire cost of allies in war, including veterans benefits , interest.

interwar

in 1920 1933, britain , germany on terms, shown locarno treaties , kellogg–briand pact, helped reintegrate germany europe.

at 1922 genoa conference, britain clashed openly france on amount of reparations collected germany. in 1923, france occupied ruhr industrial area of germany after germany defaulted in reparations. britain condemned french move , largely supported germany in ruhrkampf (ruhr struggle) between germans , french. in 1924, britain forced france make major on amount of reparations germany had pay.

the later resolved reparations issue. dawes plan (1924-1929) , young plan (1929-1931), sponsored us, provided financing sums germany owed allies in reparations. of money returned britain, paid off american loans. 1931, german payments britain suspended. eventually, in 1951, west germany pay off world war reparations owed britain.

with coming power of hitler , nazis in 1933, relations worsened. in 1934, secret report british defence requirements committee called germany ultimate potential enemy , called expeditionary force of 5 mechanised divisions , fourteen infantry divisions. however, budget restraints prevented formation of large force.

in 1935, 2 nations agreed anglo-german naval agreement avoid repeat of pre-1914 naval race.

by 1936, appeasement british effort prevent war or @ least postpone until british military ready. appeasement has been subject of intense debate 70 years academics, politicians , diplomats. historians assessments have ranged condemnation allowing hitler s germany grow strong judgement in britain s best interests , there no alternative.

at time, concessions popular, munich agreement in 1938 of germany, britain, france , italy.

world war ii

germany , britain fought each other british declaration of war, in september 1939, german surrender, in may 1945. war continues loom large in british public memory.

at beginning of war, germany crushed poland. in spring 1940, germany astonished world invading low countries , france, driving british army off continent , seizing of weapons, vehicles , supplies. war brought british skies in battle of britain in late summer 1940, aerial assault repulsed, stopped operation sealion, plans invasion of britain.

the british empire standing alone against germany, united states funded , supplied british. in december 1941, united states entered war against germany , japan after attack on pearl harbor japan, later overwhelmed british outposts in pacific hong kong singapore.

the allied invasion of france on d-day in june 1944 strategic bombing , land forces contributed final defeat of germany.

since 1945

road sign delimiting british zone of occupation in berlin, 1984.


occupation

as part of yalta , potsdam agreements, britain took control of own sector in occupied germany. merged sector american , french sectors, , territory became independent nation of west germany in 1949. british played central role in nuremberg trials of major war criminals in 1946. in berlin, british, american, , french zones joined west berlin, , 4 occupying powers kept official control of city until 1991.

much of germany s industrial plant fell within british zone , there trepidation rebuilding old enemy s industrial powerhouse prove danger british security , compete battered british economy. 1 solution build strong, free trade union movement in germany. rely on american money, through marshall plan, modernised both british , german economies, , reduced traditional barriers trade , efficiency. washington, not london, pushed germany , france reconcile , join in schumann plan of 1950 agreed pool coal , steel industries.

cold war

with united states taking lead, britain royal air force played major supporting role in providing food , coal berlin in berlin airlift of 1948–1949. airlift broke soviet blockade designed force western allies out of city.

in 1955 west germany joined nato, while east germany joined warsaw pact. britain @ point did not officially recognise east germany. left wing of labour party, breaking anti-communism of postwar years, called recognition. call heightened tensions between british labour party , german social democratic party (spd).

after 1955, britain decided rely on relatively inexpensive nuclear weapons deterrent against soviet union, , way reduce expensive troop commitments in west germany. london gained support washington , went ahead reductions while insisting maintaining commitment defence of western europe.

britain made 2 applications membership in common market (european community). failed in face of french veto in 1961, reapplication in 1967 successful, negotiations being concluded in 1972. diplomatic support of west germany proved decisive.

in 1962 britain secretly assured poland of acceptance of latter s western boundary. west germany had been ambiguous matter. britain had long been uneasy west germany s insistence on provisional nature of boundary. on other hand, kept secret not antagonise britain s key ally in quest enter european community.

in 1970 german government under willy brandt, former mayor of west berlin, signed treaty poland recognizing , guaranteeing borders of poland.

reunification

uk foreign secretary william hague , frank-walter steinmeier, german minister foreign affairs in london, 3 february 2014.

in 1990, prime minister margaret thatcher @ first opposed german reunification accepted treaty on final settlement respect germany.

since 1945 germany hosts several british military installations in western part of country part of british forces germany. both countries members of nato, , share strong economic ties. david mcallister, former minister-president of german state of lower saxony, son of scottish father , german mother, holds british , german citizenship. similarly, leader of scottish national party in british house of commons, angus robertson half german, mother germany. robertson speaks fluent german , english.

in 1996, britain , germany established shared embassy building in reykjavik. celebrations open building held on 2 june 1996 , attended british foreign minister @ time, malcolm rifkind, , minister of state @ german foreign ministry, werner hoyer, , icelandic foreign minister halldór Ásgrímsson. commemorative plaque in building records first purpose built co-located british-german chancery building in europe .