Reconstruction Ancient Greek phonology

1 reconstruction

1.1 internal evidence

1.1.1 evidence spelling
1.1.2 onomatopoeic words
1.1.3 morpho-phonological facts
1.1.4 non-standard spellings
1.1.5 metrical evidence


1.2 external evidence

1.2.1 orthoepic descriptions
1.2.2 cross-dialectal comparison
1.2.3 loanwords
1.2.4 comparison older alphabets
1.2.5 comparison younger/derived alphabets
1.2.6 comparison modern greek
1.2.7 comparative reconstruction of indo-european

reconstruction

the above information based on large body of evidence discussed extensively linguists , philologists of 19th , 20th centuries. following section provides short summary of kinds of evidence , arguments have been used in debate, , gives hints sources of uncertainty still prevails respect details.

internal evidence
evidence spelling

whenever new set of written symbols, such alphabet, created language, written symbols typically correspond spoken sounds, , spelling or orthography therefore phonemic or transparent: easy pronounce word seeing how spelled, , conversely spell word knowing how pronounced. until pronunciation of language changes, spelling mistakes not occur, since spelling , pronunciation match each other.

when pronunciation changes, there 2 options. first spelling reform: spelling of words changed reflect new pronunciation. in case, date of spelling reform indicates approximate time when pronunciation changed.

the second option spelling remains same, while pronunciation changes. in case, spelling system called conservative or historical, since reflects pronunciation @ earlier period in language. called opaque, because there not simple correspondence between written symbols , spoken sounds: more difficult pronounce word seeing spelling, , conversely spell word knowing how pronounce it.

in language historical spelling system, spelling mistakes indicate change in pronunciation. writers incomplete knowledge of spelling system misspell words, , in general misspellings reflect way pronounced words.

if scribes confuse 2 letters, implies sounds denoted 2 letters same: sounds have merged. happened ⟨ι ει⟩. little later, happened ⟨υ οι⟩, ⟨ο ω⟩, , ⟨ε αι⟩. later still, ⟨η⟩ confused merged ⟨ι ει⟩.
if scribes omit letter written, or insert not belong (hypercorrection), implies sound letter represented had been lost in speech. happened word-initial rough breathing (/h/) in forms of greek. example occasional omission of iota subscript of long diphthongs (see above).

spelling mistakes provide limited evidence: indicate pronunciation of scribe made spelling mistake, not pronunciation of speakers of language @ time. ancient greek language many regional variants , social registers. many of pronunciation changes of koine greek occurred earlier in regional pronunciations , sociolects of attic in classical age, older pronunciations preserved in more learned speech.

onomatopoeic words

greek literature contains representations of animal cries in greek letters. quoted example βῆ βῆ, used render cry of sheep, , used evidence beta had voiced bilabial plosive pronunciation , eta long open-mid front vowel. onomatopoeic verbs such μυκάομαι lowing of cattle (cf. latin mugire), βρυχάομαι roaring of lions (cf. latin rugire) , κόκκυξ name of cuckoo (cf. latin cuculus) suggest archaic [uː] pronunciation of long upsilon, before vowel fronted [yː].

morpho-phonological facts

sounds undergo regular changes, such assimilation or dissimilation, in environments within words, indicated in writing. these can used reconstruct nature of sounds involved.

<π,τ,κ> @ end of words regularly changed <φ,θ,χ> when preceding rough breathing in next word. thus, e.g.: ἐφ ἁλός ἐπὶ ἁλός or καθ ἡμᾶς κατὰ ἡμᾶς.
<π,τ,κ> @ end of first member of composite words regularly changed <φ,θ,χ> when preceding spiritus asper in next member of composite word. e.g.: ἔφιππος, καθάπτω
the attic dialect in particular marked contractions: 2 vowels without intervening consonant merged in single syllable; instance uncontracted (disyllabic) ⟨εα⟩ ([e.a]) occurs regularly in dialects contracts ⟨η⟩ in attic, supporting view η pronounced [ɛː] (intermediate between [e] , [a]) rather [i] in modern greek. similarly, uncontracted ⟨εε⟩, ⟨οο⟩ ([e.e], [o.o]) occur regularly in ionic contract ⟨ει⟩ , ⟨ου⟩ in attic, suggesting [eː], [oː] values spurious diphthongs ⟨ει⟩ , ⟨ου⟩ in attic opposed [i] , [u] sounds later acquired.

non-standard spellings

morphophonological alternations above treated differently in non-standard spellings in standardised literary spelling. may lead doubts representativeness of literary dialect , may in cases force different reconstructions if 1 take literary texts of high standard language account. thus, e.g.:

non-standard epigraphical spelling indicates assimilation of final ⟨κ⟩ ⟨γ⟩ before voiced consonants in following word, or of final ⟨κ⟩ ⟨χ⟩ before aspirated sounds, in words ἐκ.

metrical evidence

the metres used in classical greek poetry based on patterns of light , heavy syllables, , can provide evidence length of vowels not evident orthography. 4th century ad poetry written using stress-based metres, suggesting distinctions between long , short vowels had been lost then, , pitch accent had been replaced stress accent.

external evidence
orthoepic descriptions

some ancient grammarians attempt give systematic descriptions of sounds of language. in other authors 1 can find occasional remarks correct pronunciation of sounds. however, both types of evidence difficult interpret, because phonetic terminology of time vague, , not clear in relation described forms of language stand spoken different groups of population.

important ancient authors include:

dionysius thrax
dionysius of halicarnassus
aelius herodianus

cross-dialectal comparison

sometimes comparison of standard attic greek written forms of other greek dialects, or humorous renderings of dialectal speech in attic theatrical works, can provide hints phonetic value of spellings. example of treatment spartan greek given above.

loanwords

the spelling of greek loanwords in other languages , vice versa can provide important hints pronunciation. however, evidence difficult interpret or indecisive. sounds of loanwords not taken on identically receiving language. receiving language lacks sound corresponds of source language, sounds mapped other, similar sound.

in regard, latin of great value reconstruction of ancient greek phonology because of close proximity greek world caused numerous greek words borrowed romans. @ first, greek loanwords denoting technical terms or proper names contained letter Φ imported in latin spelling p or ph, indicating effort imitate, albeit imperfectly, sound latin lacked. later on, in 1st centuries ad, spellings f start appear in such loanwords, signaling onset of fricative pronunciation of Φ. thus, in 2nd century ad, filippus replaces p(h)ilippus. @ same time, letter f begins used substitute letter Θ, lack of better choice, indicating sound of greek theta had become fricative well.

for purpose of borrowing other greek words, romans added letters y , z latin alphabet, taken directly greek one. these additions important show romans had no symbols represent sounds of letters Υ , Ζ in greek, means in these cases no known sound of latin can used reconstruct greek sounds.

latin wrote ⟨i u⟩ greek ⟨ε ο⟩. can explained fact latin /i u/ pronounced near-close [ɪ ʊ], , therefore similar ancient greek mid vowels /e o/ ancient greek close vowels /i u/.

Φιλουμένη > philumina
ἐμπόριον > empurium

sanskrit, persian, , armenian provide evidence.

the quality of short /a/ shown transcriptions between ancient greek , sanskrit. greek short /a/ transcribed sanskrit long ā, not sanskrit short a, had closer pronunciation: [ə]. conversely, sanskrit short transcribed greek ε.

gr ἀπόκλιμα [apóklima] > skt āpoklima- [aːpoːklimə] (an astrological term)
skt brāhmaṇa- [bɽaːɦməɳə] > gr ΒΡΑΜΕΝΑΙ

comparison older alphabets

the greek alphabet developed older phoenician alphabet. may assumed greeks tended assign each phoenician letter greek sound closely resembled phoenician sound. but, loanwords, interpretation not straightforward.

comparison younger/derived alphabets

the greek alphabet in turn basis of other alphabets, notably etruscan , coptic , later armenian, gothic, , cyrillic. similar arguments can derived in these cases in phoenician-greek case.

for example, in cyrillic, letter В (ve) stands [v], confirming beta pronounced fricative 9th century ad, while new letter Б (be) invented note sound [b]. conversely, in gothic, letter derived beta stands [b], in 4th century ad, beta may have still been plosive in greek although according evidence greek papyri of egypt, beta stop had been replaced beta voiced bilabial fricative [β] first century ad.

comparison modern greek

any reconstruction of ancient greek needs take account how sounds later developed towards modern greek, , how these changes have occurred. in general, changes between reconstructed ancient greek , modern greek assumed unproblematic in respect historical linguists, because relevant changes (spirantization, chain-shifts of long vowels towards [i], loss of initial [h], restructuring of vowel-length , accentuation systems, etc.) of types cross-linguistically attested , relatively easy explain.

comparative reconstruction of indo-european

systematic relationships between sounds in greek , sounds in other indo-european languages taken strong evidence reconstruction historical linguists, because such relationships indicate these sounds may go inherited sound in proto-language.